Manzotti et al. (2024) — Developmental Psychobiology Polyvagal Theory has been influential in discussions about the autonomic nervous system, safety, social connection and emotional regulation. At the same time, aspects of the theory have been questioned as our understanding of neuroscience and autonomic physiology has developed. In this review, Andrea Manzotti and colleagues revisit Polyvagal Theory in light of research that has emerged during the roughly 25 years since the

Grossman, P. (2023) — Biological Psychology Polyvagal Theory has become an influential way of thinking about safety, threat, social connection and autonomic regulation. However, some of the scientific explanations underlying the theory have been challenged. In this 2023 paper, researcher Paul Grossman examines several of the central biological and evolutionary claims made by Polyvagal Theory and argues that important parts of them are not supported by the available evidence.

Porges, S. W. (2009) — Cleveland Clinic Journal of Medicine In this 2009 paper, Stephen Porges provides a more accessible overview of Polyvagal Theory and explores how the autonomic nervous system may contribute to different ways of responding to safety, danger and life threat. The paper develops some of the ideas from his earlier work and introduces concepts that have since become widely used within trauma-informed and body-based approaches. Different responses for different

Porges, S. W. (2007) — Biological Psychology Polyvagal Theory has become highly influential in trauma-informed and body-based approaches to therapy. In this 2007 paper, Stephen Porges sets out the theory in detail and proposes a way of understanding how changes in our autonomic nervous system may relate to behaviour, emotion, social connection and responses to threat. What is Polyvagal Theory? At its heart, Polyvagal Theory asks us to think about the autonomic nervous system

Touch is a fundamental part of human interaction, but how strong is the scientific evidence that touch can actually influence our physical and mental health? This large 2024 study by Packheiser and colleagues attempted to answer that question by bringing together results from more than 200 previous studies of touch interventions involving thousands of participants. Rather than looking at one particular form of touch, the researchers examined a wide range of interventions and

Touch is one of the first ways we encounter and communicate with other people. From infancy onwards, physical contact forms part of caregiving, bonding and social interaction. This review by Cascio, Moore and McGlone explores the science of social touch across human development and considers how our nervous system processes touch that carries emotional and social meaning. The authors bring together research from developmental psychology and neuroscience, including work on a s

Touch is one of our earliest forms of communication. Long before we can understand language, supportive physical contact can play a role in soothing, connection and care. This 2022 review by Fotopoulou, von Mohr and Krahé explored the science of social and affective touch and how touch may contribute to the regulation of our emotional and physiological states. Rather than testing a particular therapy, the authors brought together research from psychology and neuroscience to c

Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is usually discussed in terms of memories, thoughts and emotions. But trauma can also profoundly affect how people experience and respond to sensations within their bodies. This 2024 paper by Leech, Stapleton and Patching reviewed existing research into the relationship between interoceptive awareness — our awareness and interpretation of signals arising from within the body — and PTSD. Rather than conducting a new clinical trial, the res

Interoception is often described simply as our ability to notice what is happening inside our body. But this influential 2012 study by Mehling and colleagues showed that body awareness is considerably more complex than simply noticing bodily sensations. The researchers developed the Multidimensional Assessment of Interoceptive Awareness (MAIA), a questionnaire designed to measure different ways in which people experience and relate to sensations within their bodies. Rather th

Interoception is our ability to sense, interpret and integrate signals coming from within our own body. These can include signals associated with breathing, heartbeat, hunger, temperature, pain and many other internal bodily processes. This influential review by Khalsa and colleagues brought together research from neuroscience, psychology and psychiatry to examine how interoception may contribute to mental health. Rather than testing a particular therapy, the paper provides a

This 2025 study explored how military veterans experienced two different approaches to working with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD): Somatic Experiencing (SE) and Prolonged Exposure (PE). Rather than simply measuring whether symptoms improved, the researchers wanted to understand what therapy actually felt like from the participants’ point of view. Thirty participants from a randomized controlled trial were interviewed after taking part in therapy. All had military-rela

Chronic pain and trauma can sometimes occur alongside one another. This study looked at whether adding Somatic Experiencing (SE) to usual treatment could help people experiencing both chronic lower-back pain and symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). The researchers recruited 91 people from a Danish spine centre. Everyone received their usual treatment for lower-back pain, which involved supervised exercise. Around half also received between 6 and 12 sessions of S

This study looked at whether Somatic Experiencing (SE) could help adults experiencing post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). It was a randomized controlled study, meaning participants were assigned either to receive SE or to a comparison group, allowing the researchers to examine whether the treatment made a measurable difference. Participants who received Somatic Experiencing had 15 weekly sessions. By the end of the study, they showed greater reductions in PTSD symptoms and

The body-as-machine metaphor has deep roots in our culture. We talk about "running out of fuel," "revving the engine," or "running on...